The Lost Calculation: Between India and Tibet
An examination of the sidereal vs. tropical zodiac debate and how an essential work of Indian Astrology preserved in Tibet (Kālacakra Tantra) asserts the use of a tropical zodiac.
Introduction
India and Tibet are at the heart of the richest philosophical, medical, and astrological traditions known to humankind. India has especially influenced the Tibetan philosophical, medical, and astrological traditions, but if we view the Tibetan systems as being purely of Indian origin and influence then we simultaneously dismiss a wealth of knowledge. Students in these fields cannot afford to rely purely on Sanskrit texts of Indian origin if they hope to ascertain a complete portrait of the profound sciences they study. For many reasons, portions of Sanskrit texts have been either entirely lost or patched together over centuries, facing the misfortune of errors, misunderstandings, and corruption. The Tibetans have thus done a great service to Indian culture by translating a plethora of such texts into the Tibetan language, thereby preserving them.
Those who doubt that the Tibetans have indeed done so need only study the Sanskrit and Tibetan languages. Tibetan is derived from Sanskrit and it mirrors Sanskrit largely for the purpose of easily translating Sanskrit texts. The Tibetan language was, in fact, so well-structured upon Sanskrit that modern scholars have been able to translate Tibetan texts back into the original Sanskrit in cases where the original Sanskrit text has been entirely lost. However, in preserving the Indian texts they found to be of value, the Tibetans were not merely accepting the Indian paradigms--they were critically examining and improving upon what they found. A poor understanding of this leads to the common assertions people make of Tibetan culture when they state that Tibetan Medicine is nothing other than Indian Ayurveda, or that Tibetan Astrology is nothing other than a fusion of Indian and Chinese Astrology. There is no doubt of the Indian influence and foundation of these systems in Tibet, but the Tibetans have improved upon these systems and also brought the understanding of their own native culture (Bön) to it.
My purpose in stating this is due to the fact that there is currently great controversy amongst Vedic astrologers as to which zodiac to use (sidereal or tropical). Given that no existing text in the Vedic tradition has been able to offer irresolute proof that one should be used over the other, I have naturally turned to an Indian text in the Buddhist tradition that has been incorporated into the Tibetan astrological and yogic tradition: the Kālacakra Tantra. The Kālacakra Tantra, together with its commentary, Vimalaprabhā, constitute two 11th century texts that provide the foundation of Indian astrology in Tibet. What is interesting about these texts is that while they proceed directly from the Indian siddhāntas, they directly criticize and correct the perceived errors in calculation. I believe that the Kālacakra Tantra offers a revolutionary spirit and vision of clarity in times of naïve orthodoxy where the only absolute has become ambiguity itself. The import of my findings are therefore the proceeding content and significance of this essay.
Tibetan Astrology
Before we dive into the implications of the Kālacakra Tantra, a brief overview of Tibetan astrology is necessary. The Tibetan astrological tradition is most accurately described as a convergence of three traditions: the native shamanistic tradition of Tibetan known as Bön, Indian astrology, and Chinese astrology. The native Bön tradition of Tibet shares similarities (as well as subtle differences) from the traditions of the ancient Chinese, and as such, their astrological influence is more akin to the Chinese tradition. Thus, the Tibetans describe their astrology as being comprised of essentially two streams, or "calculations": the calculation of the white expanse (or simply, the "white calculation") and the calculation of the black expanse (or simply, the "black calculation"). The reason for this specific characterization is quite simple: the Tibetans described the Indians as the land of the white and the Chinese as the land of the black. Hence, these colors were simply means for describing the respective cultures of the Indian and the Chinese. For the purposes of this article, we are examining the "white calculation", or the incorporation of Indian astrology into the Tibetan astrological tradition. The "white calculation" is summarized in the Kālacakra Tantra and so our journey is focused on this mysterious text.
The Kālacakra Tantra is a text of Indian origin, belonging to the Indian Buddhist tradition rather than the Vedic tradition. Its translation into Tibetan is dated as 1027 CE, but its existence in Sanskrit dates to 806 CE, and possibly earlier. The text is described as being taught by the Buddha in the 5th century BC to the Kings of Shambhala[1] who organized the teachings into their current form. The meaning of kālacakra is "wheel of time", and so its focus on astrology comes as no surprise. However, the Kālacakra Tantra is also more than an astrological system. Conceived of as a mandala, the Tantra has an "outer", "inner", and "secret" dimension. The outer Tantra describes the calculations for the five aspects of the calendar (pañanga), planetary positions, and solar and lunar eclipses. The inner Tantra describes how the movement of the heavenly bodies affects the flow of life-energy[2] in the human body. Based upon the observed effects of planetary motion on the flow of life-energy, an elaborate anatomical map of the subtle body is described, and a system of yogic meditative practice is ascertained. The Tantra states that while the movement of the planets affects the flow of life within our nādis and cakras, so it is that we can directly harness the flow of time and transcend the effects of conditional nature.
Zodiacal Confusion
Provincialism is the great obstacle in the true study of any great science, especially the Vedic sciences. Nationalistic prejudices fail to recognize the cultural evolution of man, which is necessarily universal in nature. There can be no question, for example, that the Indians profoundly influenced the Greeks and the Greeks the Indians.[3] It is, however, rare that a culture simply accepts the paradigms of another without adjusting and potentially improving upon it in some manner. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the relationship between India and Tibet, both medically and astrologically. There is so much in the Ayurvedic tradition alone that has been lost or obscured that we now see thriving in the clinics of Tibet.[4] Cultural bias certainly shapes emphasis over time, and as Ayurveda has come to the West, it has adapted to its new environment. The environment of India, however, is also rapidly changing to become increasingly "Westernized". Western medicine is seen as the apex of science and now Ayurveda has been tailored to fit the modern allopathic paradigm. This certainly has its positives, but also its negatives. In contrast, the relative obscurity of Tibetan medicine and astrology--along with its well-maintained lineages--has allowed for a tremendous degree of preservation, relatively free of the "Westernizing" trend. Furthermore, the Tibetans' openness to benefit from surrounding cultures has only been an enrichment to its own cultural and philosophical tapestry, as far as I can see it. In a circuitous twist of fate, it is India that has provided a home for the Tibetans amidst the Chinese invasion, and enabled them to preserve their culture. The Tibetans are not shy about the nature of their cultural influences. For every Sanskrit text that has been translated into Tibetan, the original Sanskrit name is given below the Tibetan name of the text, as a way of paying homage to the native culture of the text. The Tibetans also have a unique gift for organizing and categorizing information. They have taken the entire system of Ayurveda, understood it, and presented it in a more logical and delineated format than is found in the Indian texts. They have also, as early as the 5th century engaged in cross-cultural dialogue, incorporating elements of the Indian, Chinese, and Persian medical traditions.[5] What the Tibetans have done with medicine, they have also done with astrology, as the two subjects were (and still are) seen as a single subject in Tibet. There are several years of astrological education built into the medical curriculum of traditional Tibetan doctors, even to this day. It proceeds then that astrologers of India may have something to gain in examining the Tibetans' preservation and subsequent correction of the calculations from the siddhāntas.
The controversy between zodiacs was never dreamed of in the time of the ancients, as during their time, there was no different between tropical or sidereal Aries. It is only over time that the realities of precession[6] demonstrated the ever-deepening difference between these two zodiacs. The Greeks, Persians, and Tibetans all describe a tropical zodiac, while the great majority of Vedic astrologers today assert the use of a sidereal zodiac.[7] Many are of the mistaken belief that the use of the sidereal zodiac is what makes astrology "Vedic" and therefore unique. Such an understanding is among the most superficial, as the defining paradigms of Vedic astrology are deeply philosophical and technical in nature. Some modern Vedic astrologers have asserted that the sidereal zodiac is based upon the fixed stars rather than the moving equinoxes and solstices thereby making it more "reliable" and "true". These are equally superficial claims, as the astrology of every other culture is based on a tropical zodiac, which understands the formation of the ecliptic on the basis of the Sun's apparent path around the Earth. Astrology is, after all, rooted in the astronomical observation of space and time from Earth. The last attempt at justifying the Indians use of the sidereal zodiac is that it is the "spiritual" zodiac while the tropical zodiac is "earthly" in nature and therefore only of import for agriculture, not natal astrology. Such an argument is aggressively devoid of philosophical and astronomical value.
In order to escape this confronting conundrum, astrologers have also argued that the use of zodiacs is akin to many paths leading to the same truth. But this is merely an empty attempt at peace which amounts more to indifference than reconciliation. Others promote the idea that astrology can be practiced whether or not the calculations are accurate and exact, because astrology has archetypal and intuitive value as opposed to rational and scientific value. While I have no lack of sympathy with the intuitive aspects of astrological practice, it is a disservice to the tradition of astrology to promote its non-scientific basis. It is true that astrology requires an intuitive faculty and that the reading of reflected patterns is archetypal in nature, but it is equally true that astrology is based in the observable movement of the planets. If we remove astronomy from the heart of astrology, then we are left with mere divination--at which point, we should just as soon roll dice than cast a chart.[8]
Therefore, the consideration of the zodiac is of significant import in astrological practice and cannot be dismissed casually, even if it topples long-existing paradigms. Astrologer Ernst Wilhelm was the first to posit the use of a tropical zodiac in a Vedic astrological context in his groundbreaking essay, "The Mystery of The Zodiac". In his essay, Wilhelm provides a summary of the zodiacal confusion facing the astrological tradition and examines significant portions of Indian texts in order to determine a proper zodiac. As his findings and suggestions are of significant value, I will quote them at length:
The greatest influence upon Vedic astrology as practiced in this day and age is that of Varahamihira, circa 500AD. Varahamihira’s work is largely based on the two Yavana works, Yavana Jataka of Sphujidhvaja and Vriddha Yavana Jataka, both of which predate Varahamihira by some 300-500 years. Both these Yavana works are held in high esteem by later Hindu authors of astrology, who quote and refer to them often. Thus much of the Vedic astrology practiced today is the result of the influence of these two Yavana works.
Who exactly the Yavanas were is not agreed upon by all scholars, however, there is general agreement that they were somehow related to the Greeks. Some believe the Yavanas were the Greeks that had commerce with India during the time of Alexander the Great, while others claim that the Yavanas were Greeks that settled in northern India and who became Hindus, studied the Hindu astrology and wrote masterful texts on the subject. The latter is more likely the case as the author of Yavana Jataka claims that the science of astrology was given by the Asvins, which would not likely be a belief that an orthodox Greek would have had. Varahamihira states that the Yavanas embraced the science of astrology, mastered it and thus we (the Hindus of his time) should now be willing to learn from them. In any case the facts reveal that the Yavanas had at least some Greek heritage, that the Yavana influence upon astrology in India is great, and that the Yavanas studied the astrology of the ancient Indian masters. There are, however, no fully extent natal astrology texts that scholars have managed to date before the time of the Yavana texts, and this has caused some scholars to believe that Rasis were first introduced into India by the Yavanas – the Greeks. However, there are remnants written by the ancient masters from the period of perhaps 300 BC and older that reveal the use of Rasis before the Yavana texts. These are known as the Vriddha Karikas and they notably mention Rasi aspects.
In the contest of Rasis, the Yavana Jataka reveals an interesting fact. In its first chapter Yavana Jataka states the following:
29. The solar half (of the Zodiac) begins with Magha (the first naksatra in Leo); the other half, the lunar, with Sarpa (the last naksatra in Cancer). The Sun gives the (Zodiacal) signs to the planets in order, the lunar signs (are assigned) in reverse order.
This has reference to the fact that the Zodiac is divided into two halves, one ruled by the Sun and one by the Moon. The six Rasis from Leo: Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius and Capricorn are the Solar Rasis. The six Rasis in the reverse from Cancer: Cancer, Gemini, Taurus, Aries, Pisces and Aquarius are the Lunar Rasis. Yavana Jataka gives this information in reference to the Nakshatras, which means that in this instance Yavana Jataka is referring to Sidereal Rasis. In its last chapter, however, Yavana Jataka refers to the Tropical Zodiac:
30. One should find that the northern course of the Sun begins at the beginning of Capricorn, and the southern course at the beginning of the fourth sign (Cancer); the first equator (crossing) in the year is at the beginning of Aries, the second at the beginning of Libra.
Yavana Jataka clearly refers to the Equinox as the beginning of Aries, so the Tropical Zodiac is mentioned. These two contradicting Sutras reveal that the Yavanas, considered as masters in astrology by Varahamihira, had no knowledge of the precession of the equinoxes, which means that they had no knowledge of the possibility of a Sidereal and Tropical Zodiac. The question is, did the Yavanas believe they were using the Sidereal Zodiac without the knowledge that there was a precession and no Tropical Zodiac, or did they believe they were using the Tropical Zodiac, again, with no knowledge of precession and or any knowledge of a Sidereal Zodiac? There is no way we can know, we can only now that they were not aware of the precession of the equinoxes.
After examining similar (and conflicting) evidence from a single author, Wilhelm concludes:
If the Tropical Zodiac is the correct Zodiac for erecting horoscopes, one theory of how the difference in Zodiac use could have come about is that the Hindu Astrologers, who emphasized Nakshatras due to their importance in the religious and daily life of the Hindu, began to ignore precession when the vernal equinox (0 degrees Tropical Aries) lined up with the beginning of Asvini and upon the vernal equinox beginning to precess backwards through the Nakshatras, they erroneously continued to calculate Aries Rasi from the beginning of Asvini Nakshatras.
If the Sidereal Zodiac is the correct Zodiac for erecting horoscopes, one theory of how the difference in Zodiac use could have come about is that as the vernal equinox (0 degrees tropical Aries) moved towards Asvini (0 degrees Sidereal Aries) the Greeks, becoming attached to the Solar Months, which are tropical and named after Aries, etc. forgot about the Sidereal Rasis.
There is evidence of the Greeks knowing of precession from 300 BC to the present, while there is evidence that the Indians lost the knowledge of precession during the 1st - 5th century AD, during which time the Vernal equinox was close to the beginning of Asvini, so there is a greater likelihood that the Indians made the error.
Wilhelm's presentation of the zodiac crisis facing the Vedic astrological tradition, along with what was perceived as his revolutionary suggestion to use both zodiacs, has led to a reformationary current in the Vedic astrological tradition. In "The Mystery of The Zodiac", Wilhelm has deeply considered the nature and meaning of several Indian texts. It is my purpose in this article to introduce yet another text and citation that I feel shifts the landscape in a similar direction but hopefully farther from the mystery of the zodiac and closer to a clarification of the zodiac!
The Clarification of The Zodiac
In Kālacakra and the Tibetan Calendar, Kālacakra scholar and translator, Edward Henning, translates and comments upon the astrological calculations presented in the Kālacakra Tantra. The text of the Tantra has two significant implications for Vedic astrologers: (1) It gives the calculation of the planets in an undoubtedly tropical manner (2) It directly criticizes the Indians' calculations. According to Henning, "It is clear that the Kālacakra writers considered the calendrical methods in general use in India to have become corrupted over time. . ."[9] and that "The Kālacakra system accepts the basics of general Indian astrology, but corrects some points that are considered wrong".[10] It is this point that should awaken the curiosity of the Vedic astrologer. Why did the Tibetans consider the Indian calculations to be corrupt and inaccurate? Why did the Tibetans accept the basics of Indian astrology but reject the nature of their calculations?
Henning opens his discussion of this topic with verse 26 of the Kālacakra Tantra, titled "The prophesy of the coming of Mañjuśrī":
After this year, six hundred years, there will arise in Sambhala the appearance of the lord of men, Yaśas; Then after nāga hundred years, for certain, in the land of Mecca, the barbarian teachings will be established. At that time, people in the world will know the accurate brief karanas. All through the land the siddhāntas will be corrupted, in the effects of time. [26][11]
Henning gives the following commentary on this verse:
The Vimalaprabhā is here starting its criticism of other Indian systems of astronomy, claiming that their understanding of the position of the Sun has become inaccurate. Indian systems use a sidereal zodiac--one defined by the fixed stars--and, as will become clear, the Kālacakra advocates a tropical zodiac, one that keeps step with the seasons, and where the definition of the entry of the Sun into Aries is the vernal equinox--the moment when day and night are of equal length.[12]
The Tantra appears to suggest that the Islamic invasion was the source of siddhāntic corruption, but Henning points out that during the relevant period, there was a greater influence of Indian astronomers on Islamic astronomers. He suggestively interprets the phrase "effects of time" as a reference to precession, "a faster that was not taken properly into account by the Indian astronomers, but well understood in the Islamic world". The fact that the Indians did not consider the realities of precession are at the heart of the zodiac controversy, and so it does follow that the Tantra would criticize the Indians for not understanding the "effects of time". The Tantra then continues:
One does not find an accurate Sun in the karanas other than those in which an accurate determination with the shadow has been made of the day of the start of the northward passage. Without the accurate shadow for the northward passage, the solar longitude will not be accurate. If the solar longitude is not accurate, then as a result the lunar longitude will not be accurate. Similarly, as Mangala (Mars) and so forth are subtracted from the solar longitude, if the solar longitude is not accurate then their longitudes will also not be accurate.[13]
Henning continues:
The distinction between tropical and sidereal zodiacs is not spelled out here, but the intention is clear enough. If the longitude of the Sun is determined, thereby defining the zodiac, by reference to a shadow at the time of the solstice, this can only define a tropical zodiac. The actual definition occurs later in the text, during commentary to verse 38. It is interesting to note that the main Indian siddhāntas place the coincidence of the tropical and sidereal zodiacs at the beginning of the 6th century CE. I shall show later that the planetary calculations included in the Kālacakra Tantra almost certainly are derived from one of these siddhāntas, described by Varāhamihira with an epoch of 505 CE. It is from that time that the Kālacakra would claim to have adhered to a correct, tropical, zodiac. Presumably one interpretation of the Kālacakra criticism of other Indian systems is that they misunderstood the nature of the zodiac, and confused it with the fixed stars.
I should point out that I use the term 'passage' here in a way slightly different from normal western usage. the meaning in the original texts is to divide the motion of the Sun in a year into two halves (bgrod pa, ayana), one when it is traveling towards the north, between the winter and summer solstices, and the other when it is traveling back towards the south. It seems reasonable to call these northward and southward passages.
The normal western use of passage is similar, but in that case northern passage refers to the half of its orbit when the Sun is north of the Earth's equator--between the spring and autumn equinoxes. The comment that the longitudes of Mars and the other planets are subtracted from the longitude of the Sun is a reference to the importance of the Sun in the calculation of the geocentric longitude of the planets.[14]
The Tantra then continues:
So, as their longitudes for the planets are not accurate, the planetary prognostications and horoscopes of the heterodox are pointless.[15]
The Tantra then provides an extensive discussion on how to correct the calculation of the solar longitude and the remaining planets. In the following passage from the commentary, the "primary definition" of the zodiac is finally given:
In order to understand these omissions and additions, for ten days before the first month of the northward passage, the shadow of a gnomon should be carefully studied. That day from which the gnomon shadow shows the turn towards the north, that is the day of the Sun's change, with that weekday, that lunar day, that yoga, and that karana.
On the day the longitude of the Sun has twenty in the mansion place and fifteen in the nādī place, and this is the primary definition.[16]
Henning comments:
The Vimalaprabhā now starts to explain the key component of the Kālacakra siddhānta; the method of correcting the longitude of the Sun. The "day of the Sun's change" is the day of the winter solstice, and this is the crucial passage for the definition of the zodiac according to the Kālacakra system. The phrase "primary definition" leaves no room for doubt regarding its importance. The figure given of 20;15 corresponds exactly to the beginning of Capricorn, the position of the Sun at the winter solstice in a tropical zodiac.[17]
The sentiments of the Tantra and its commentary were echoed a century later by Abhayākaragupta, an 11th-12th century master of the Kālacakra system and abbot of the Vikramśīla monastery. His primary work was a Sanskrit text on Kālacakra astronomy and calendar known as the Kālacakrāvatāra ("Introduction to Kālacakra").[18] According to Henning, this text quotes extensively from the Tantra and its commentary, reiterating the need for correcting the solar longitude. Abhayākaragupta, however, describes more elaborately the setting up on a gnomon to determine the proper longitude of the Sun.
Conclusions
It is certainly clear from the verses that while the Tibetans sought to incorporate Indian astrology, they considered the sidereal zodiac to be a mistaken calculation, instead giving extensive instructions on converting Indian calculations to what could only constitute a tropical zodiac. It is then several years after Wilhelm's publication of "The Mystery of The Zodiac" that Henning has put forward a strikingly similar conclusion:
Looking at the description of the calculations for the calendar in the Kālacakra Tantra commentary, the Vimalaprabhā . . . it strikes me that the Kālacakra system expresses a reforming spirit, criticizing the loss of accuracy in general Indian systems and encouraging the proper use of a tropical zodiac based upon the observation of solstices.
It is certainly true that around the sixth and seventh centuries CE Indian astronomers paid little--perhaps too little--attention to the effects of precession. In his translation of the Sūrya Siddhānta (Sūrya, p. 117), Burgess writes that "the earliest Hindu astronomers were ignorant of, or ignored, the periodical motion of the equinoxes." He also considers the possibility that the Hindu adoption of the sidereal system was the result of "a failure to recognise the fact that the equinox was variable."
He goes on to describe how difficult it would have been for them to fit corrections for precession into their theories and calculations once they had finally realized the important effect it was having. This is a cogent point, and the Vimalaprabhā similarly criticizes the Indian heterodox astronomers for creating complex systems that they eventually themselves failed to understand, and that subsequently became inaccurate with the passage of time.
These views expressed by Burgess are very similar to my interpretation of the Kālacakra criticism of Hindu astronomers--that they had drifted by neglect into using a sidereal zodiac. It is this error that the Kālacakra authors want to see corrected in a reform of the calendar. A Kālacakra point of view would accept the basic structure of the Indian calendar and its symbolism, but adjust it to the tropical zodiac. Not by some tortuous manipulation of theories and complex calculations as in the Hindu siddhāntas, but by the simple application of observation.
In the Vimalaprabhā this could hardly be expressed more clearly, and the order in which these topics are presented in both the Kālacakra Tantra and its commentary make sense when viewed in this way.[19]
I believe Henning is correct to assess the Kālacakra Tantra as having a "reforming spirit". In fact, its corrected calculations have yet to be put into practice by either the Indians who inspired it or the Tibetans who wrote them! We know that most Vedic astrologers are still using a sidereal zodiac to calculate signs and nakshatras, but what about the Tibetans? The Tibetans certainly intended to use a tropical zodiac since the time of the Kālacakra Tantra, but their zodiac is currently positioned somewhere between the sidereal and tropical. This is due to the Tibetan belief that the solstice was observed at a different time in Tibet than in other parts of the world, a mistaken theory that has long been disproven. In order to account for this belief, the Tibetans introduced an adjustment to the tropical zodiac, which has now placed it 35° apart from the true tropical zodiac. Throughout history, there have been calendar makers and astronomers in Tibet who have pointed out this miscalculation but to no avail.[20] In recent time, it is Henning's scholarship that has pointed out this need most fervently and poignantly. The true tropical zodiac is now, effectively, the lost calculation, stranded somewhere between India and Tibet.
The Tantra's advocacy of a tropical zodiac could be rejected by Indians as being a "Tibetan" phenomenon and therefore not truly representative of the Vedic astrological tradition. However, such an argument does not truly hold as the Kālacakra system is, in fact, entirely of Indian origin. Another possible argument could be that the Tibetans did not understand the nature of the sidereal zodiac and so mistakenly sought to correct the siddhāntic calculations, but this also does not hold in light of the inconsistencies found within the Vedic texts and the Tantra's overt recommendation for an astrology based on observation. There are Tibetan astrologers who seek to justify the current "tropical" zodiac used by Tibetans putting forward arguments that astrology is not scientific but symbolic. Such an argument only reveals insecurities and an inability to "lose face". Perhaps one of the strongest messages of the Kālacakra Tantra is that it calls for astrology to be founded in direct observation of the planetary bodies--and such is the true foundation of even all astrological knowledge. Some may cry reductionism at such a suggestion, as astrology in the modern era has emerged with greater archetypal and thereby psychological import. And I agree wholeheartedly that one of the superior uses of astrology is for healing the psyche. At the same time, we must not forget that it is based on real astronomical realities and their actual movements as seen from Earth.
Proponents of a sidereal astrology may continue to advocate the fixed star system, but there is no actual basis for attributing rāsis to the constellations. The original names of the constellations differ from the zodiacal names given to them by the Greeks which has only served to confuse things. The Vedic texts do not originally describe rāsis with names and symbols, but simply as a 12-fold division of the ecliptic. We should consider then whether the sidereal zodiac has a real basis, or if it is simply a cross-cultural confusion made worse from a lack of knowledge regarding precession?
Wilhelm's "Mystery of The Zodiac" inspired an equilibrium between the two zodiacal extremes, suggesting that both should be used in proper context: a tropical zodiac to calculate rāsi and a sidereal zodiac for calculating nakshatras. The logic being that as nakshatras are commonly considered to be the fixed stars, it appears logical to assign them to a sidereal zodiac. What is interesting is that while the Kālacakra Tantra clearly gives credence to a tropically calculated zodiac, it does not discern the use of a sidereal zodiac for the nakshatras. This is puzzling given their awareness of nakshatras and the nature of the siddhāntic calculations. For example, the following commentary on the earlier quoted verse from the Tantra makes mention of nakshatras while giving the correction of the Sun's longitude:
Others do not have an accurate Sun in their karanas. For this reason, from the longitude, (counted in) mansions from Asvini, is subtracted six mansions and three quadrants, or 45 nādi. In order for the solar steps to be accurate, three signs from Aries, and so forth, are subtracted, Cancer being the birth-sign (of the Sun). Therefore "Season mansions and three quadrants are a deficit, and are to be subtracted directly from the Sun's longitude." By longitude is meant the longitude of mansions, and so forth, and breaking down the Sun's longitude, subtracting directly means that the mansions are subtracted from the mansion place, and the nādi are subtracted from the nādi place.
In another portion of the text, the nakshatras are clearly described in relationship to rāsis:
Aśvinī, Bharanī, and the first quadrant of Krittikā are in Aries. In this way, nine quadrants are understood to constitute Aries and the other twelve signs.[21]
The Tantra also describes the "calculation of the lunar mansion at change of lunar day" based on the previously corrected solar longitude (based on observation of the solstices).
In his comments on a verse from the commentary, Henning writes that the Tibetans criticized "the literal manner in which primarily Hindu astrologers interpreted the weekdays, lunar mansions, and the rest".[22] If the Tibetans had intended for the nakshatras to be calculated sidereally, they would not be mentioned as markers in the correction of the Sun's longitude nor would the corrected solar longitude be a factor in calculating the nakshatra at the change of the lunar day. Given the pains they went through to give the corrected calculations and the significance of nakshatras in their system, I find it unlikely that they simply neglected to indicate a separate zodiac for the nakshatras. From what I have been able to gather, the Tibetans viewed nakshatras as the Indians viewed rāsis: divisions of time. There is no evidence that I have found yet that suggests the Tibetans were mapping nakshatras as divisions in space (i.e. sidereally). (In Appendix B, I have provided a table of the Tibetan listing of nakshatras.) Whether this is an oversight on the part of the Tantra's authors or suggestive of a need to consider tropical nakshatras is the question at hand, which extends beyond the scope of this article.
As for the current astrological landscape: there is truly no end to the number of arguments that can be created from the place of bias and the mind of tribalism. The nature of such argumentation are purely political and social rather than properly intellectual and valuable forms of inquiry. Such limited modes of thinking and enquiry can only be seen as a digression from the cultural (and even spiritual) evolution of humankind. Astrologers must spend less time in argument and more time in genuine observation of and attunement to the stars. The commonly noted "astrological renaissance" of the current era is a unique moment in time wherein we can not only reflect on the cross-cultural history of various astrological traditions but can easily process complex calculations with software. There is no doubt that the work of ancient astronomers and astrologers is so immense as to verge on the superhuman. It is from the place of such reverence that we must endeavor to use the means of our time to fully consider and test the truths of time. When we can acknowledge the limitations of that which has preceded us, we may begin to realize something greater. What greater advantage exists in the passage of time? Therefore, astrologers must cultivate a disposition of profound openness, as it is only in such openness of mind and spirit that one can receive the revelations of truth. As Robert Thurman said, "It is absolutely marvelous that the Kālacakra system, after giving detailed instructions on the calculation of the calendar, recommends one indispensable practice to keep its practice effective--the actual observation of nature".[23]
References
[1] Shambhala is considered to be a mythical kingdom described in Indian and Tibetan texts. It is mentioned in the Kālacakra Tantra and the ancient Bön texts of Tibet. It is also mentioned in the Vishnu Purāna as the birthplace of the Kalki Avatar--and the Kālacakra Tantra likewise makes mention of Kalki.
[2] The flow of life-energy is described in the Tantra as prāna and bindu. Prāna is translated in Buddhist Tantra as "wind", or the flowing aspect of natural life-energy. "Bindu" is translated as "drop", or the essence of life-energy. Wind is the motion of life-energy, while Bindu is its unique crystallization and collection. According to the motion of the planets, especially during eclipses, the winds and drops move and collect in specific channels.
[3] For an impressive scholarly treatment of this topic, see Thomas McEvilley's The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies.
[4] This is especially evident in the practice of external therapies.
[5] As early as the 5th century, the King of Tibet summoned international conferences inviting doctors from India, China, Persia, and Nepal to participate in an exchange of knowledge. Similar cross-cultural exchanges were held in the 8th century, enabling the influence of Indian, Chinese, and Persian medicine into Tibetan medicine.
[6] This is a reference to axial precession, or the precession of the equinoxes, defined as a gradual shift in the orientation of the Earth's axis.
[7] It is worth noting that there is now an emergence of Vedic astrologers who are beginning to use the tropical zodiac for calculating rāsis and sidereal zodiac for calculating nakshatras.
[8] This is not to suggest that divination has no value, as it most certainly does, especially in the traditions where its genuine (and shamanically developed) practice is performed. There are divinatory aspects of astrology, but not all astrology is divinatory in nature.
[9] Edward Henning, Kālacakra and the Tibetan Calendar (New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007). 212.
[10] Ibid, 213.
[11] Ibid, 217.
[12] Ibid, 217.
[13] Ibid, 219.
[14] Ibid, 220.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid, 258.
[17] Ibid, 259.
[18] There is only one surviving manuscript of the Kālacakrāvatāra which Edward Henning obtained from The Asiatic Society in Kolkata, India. He describes the text as being written in a medieval Bengali script which he had transcribed into Devanāgarī by an expert in medieval Bengali named Vijayarāja Vajrācārya. Henning made this text available on his website, where one can also find the Tibetan translation: http://www.kalacakra.org/kavatara/kavatara.htm
[19] Edward Henning, Kālacakra and the Tibetan Calendar (New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007). 346-347.
[20] The famous example is of Zhonnu Pal who introduced an "Error Correction" calendar in 1440 which re-calculated the Sun's longitude per the Kālacakra Tantra, restoring it to a tropical value.
[21] Ibid, 247.
[22] Ibid, 249.
[23] Ibid, x.